A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which heat is produced due to nuclear fission chain reaction. Figure shows the various parts of reactor, which are as follows:
Nuclear Fuel
Moderator
Control Rods
Reflector
Reactors Vessel
Biological Shielding
Coolant.
NUCLEAR FUEL
Fuel of a nuclear reactor should be fissionable material which can be defined as an element or isotope whose nuclei can be caused to undergo nuclear
fission by nuclear bombardment and to produce a fission chain reaction. It can be one or all of the following
U233, U235 and Pu239.
Natural uranium found in earth crust contains three isotopes namely U234, U235 and U238 and their average percentage is as follows :
U238 — 99.3%
U235 — 0.7%
U234 — Trace
Out of these U235 is most unstable and is capable of sustaining chain reaction and has been given the name as primary fuel. U233 arid Pu239 are artificially produced from Th232 and U238 respectively and are called secondary fuel.
MODERATOR
In the chain reaction the neutrons produced are fast moving neutrons. These fast moving neutrons are far less effective in causing the fission of U235 and try to escape from the reactor. To improve the utilization of these neutrons their speed is reduced. It is done by colliding them with the nuclei of other material which is lighter, does not capture the neutrons but scatters them. Each such collision causes loss of energy, and the speed of the fast moving neutrons is reduced. Such material is called Moderator. The slow neutrons (Thermal Neutrons) so produced are easily captured by the nuclear fuel and the chain reaction proceeds smoothly. Graphite, heavy water and beryllium are generally used as moderator. Reactors using enriched uranium do not require moderator. But enriched uranium is costly due to processing needed. A moderator should process the following properties:
It should have high thermal conductivity.
It should be available in large quantities in pure form.
It should have high melting point in case of solid moderators and low melting point in case of liquid moderators. Solid
moderators should also possess good strength and machinability.
It should provide good resistance to corrosion.
It should be stable under heat and radiation.
It should be able to slow down neutrons.
MODERATING RATIO
To characterize a moderator it is best to use so called moderating ratio which is the ratio of moderating power to the macroscopic neuron capture coefficient. A high value of moderating ratio indicates that the given substance is more suitable for slowing down the neutrons in a reactor.
Table 10.3 indicates the moderating ratio for some of the material used as moderator.
Control Rods
The Control and operation of a nuclear reactor is quite different form a fossil and fueled (coal or oil fired) furnace. The furnace is fed continuously and the heat energy in the furnace is controlled by regulating the fuel feed, and the combustion air whereas a nuclear reactor contains as much fuel as is sufficient to operate a large power plant for some months. The consumption of this fuel and the power level of the reactor depend upon its neutron flux in the reactor core. The energy produced in the reactor due to fission of nuclear fuel during chain reaction is so much that if it is not controlled properly the entire core and surrounding structure may melt and radioactive fission products may come out of the reactor thus making it uninhabitable. This implies that we should have some means to control the power of reactor. This is done by means of control rods.
Control rods in the cylindrical or sheet form are made of boron or cadmium. These rods can be moved in and out of the holes in the reactor core assembly. Their insertion absorbs more neutrons and damps down the reaction and their withdrawal absorbs less neutrons. Thus power of reaction is controlled by shifting control rods which may be done manually or automatically.
Control rods should possess the following properties:
They should have adequate heat transfer properties.
They should be stable under heat and radiation.
They should be corrosion resistant.
They should be sufficient strong and should be able to shut down the reactor almost instantly under all conditions.
They should have sufficient cross-sectional area for the absorption.
REFLECTOR
The neutrons produced during the fission process will be partly absorbed by the fuel rods, moderator, coolant or structural material etc. Neutrons left unabsorbed will try to leave the reactor core never to return to it and will be lost. Such losses should be minimized. It is done by surrounding the reactor core by a material called reflector which will send the neutrons back into the core. The returned neutrons can then cause more fission and improve the neutrons economy of' the reactor. Generally the reflector is made up of graphite and beryllium.
REACTOR VESSEL
It is a. strong walled container housing the cure of the power reactor. It contains moderator, reflector, thermal shielding, and control rods.
BIOLOGICAL SHIELDING
Shielding the radioactive zones in the reactor roan possible radiation hazard is essential to protect, the operating men from the harmful effects. During fission of nuclear fuel, alpha particles, beta particles, deadly gamma rays and neutrons are produced. Out oil these nc-1utroxrs and gamma rays are of main significance. A protection must be provided against them. Thick layers of lead or concrete are provided round the reactor for stopping the gamma rays. Thick layers of metals or plastics are sufficient to stop the alpha and beta particles.
COOLANT
Coolant flows through and around the reactor core. It is used to transfer the large amount of heat produced in the reactor due to fission of the nuclear fuel during chain reaction. The coolant either transfers its heat to another medium or if the coolant used is water it takes up the heat and gets converted into steam in the reactor which is directly sent to the turbine. Coolant used should be stable under thermal condition. It should have a low melting point and high boiling point. It should not corrode the material with which it comes in contact. The coolant should have high heat transfer coefficient. The radioactivity induced in coolant by the neutrons bombardment should be nil. The various fluids used as coolant are water (light water or heavy water), gas (Air, CO2,Hydrogen, Helium) and liquid metals such as sodium or mixture of sodium and potassium and inorganic and organic fluids. Power required to pump the coolant should be minimum. A coolant of greater density and higher specific heat demands less pumping power and water satisfies this condition to a great extent. Water is a good coolant as it is available in large qualities can be easily handled, provides some lubrication also and offers no unusual corrosion problems. But due to its low boiling point (212 F at atmospheric pressure) it is to be kept under high pressure to keep it in the liquid state to achieve a high that transfer efficiency. Water when used as coolant should be free from impurities otherwise the impurities may become radioactive and handling of water will be difficult.
COOLANT CYCLES
The coolant while circulating through the reactor passages take up heat produced due to chain reaction and transfer this heat to the feed water in three ways as follows :
(a) Direct Cycle. In this system coolant which is water leaves the reactor in the form of steam. Boiling water reactor uses this system.
(b) Single Circuit System. In this system the coolant transfers the heat to the feed water in the steam generator. This system is used in pressurized reactor.
(c) Double Circuit System. In this system two coolants are used. Primary coolant after circulating through the reactor flows through the intermediate heat exchanger (IHX) and passes on its heat to the secondary coolant which transfers its heat in the feed water in the steam generator. This system is used in sodium graphite reactor and fast breeder reactor.
REACTOR CORE
Reactor core consists of fuel rods, moderator and space through which the coolant flows.
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